Lower & Middle Worlds (अधोलोक-मध्यलोक)

रत्नशर्करावालुकापंकधूमतमोमहातमःप्रभा भूमयो घनाम्बुवातआकाशप्रतिष्ठाः सप्ताधोऽधः ॥१॥

The lower world has seven earths, one below the other: Ratnaprabha, Sharkaraprabha, Valukaprabha, Pankaprabha, Dhumaprabha, Tamahprabha, and Mahatamahprabha. They rest on layers of dense air, thin air, and space.

Imagine seven floors underground, each darker and more miserable than the one above. The names describe what each earth looks like. The first, Ratnaprabha, has the lustre of jewels. The second, Sharkaraprabha, has the lustre of pebbles. Then comes one like sand, then mud, then smoke, then darkness, and finally Mahatamahprabha — thick darkness. These seven earths sit on solid ground, not floating in air like the heavens above. Surrounding them are three layers: dense humid air, thin air, and finally space itself.

तासु त्रिंशत्यश्रीविंशतिपश्चदशत्रिपश्रौनैकनरक-शतसहस्राणि पश्च चैव यथाक्रमम् ॥२॥

These seven earths contain 30 lakh, 25 lakh, 15 lakh, 10 lakh, 3 lakh, less than 1 lakh, and only 5 infernal abodes, respectively.

The deeper you go, the fewer hells there are — but each one is far worse. The first earth has three million abodes for infernal beings. The second has 2.5 million, the third 1.5 million, and so on. By the time you reach the seventh and lowest earth, there are only five abodes left. Fewer places, but unimaginably more suffering. The first earth, Ratnaprabha, has thirteen layers within it. Below that, each earth has two fewer layers than the one above, down to the seventh.

नारका नित्याशुभलेश्यापरिणामदेहवेदनाविक्रियाः ॥३॥

The infernal beings have perpetually inauspicious thought-colouration, environment, body, suffering, and deeds — and these get worse the deeper you go.

Everything about hell gets progressively worse. The thought-colouration (the spiritual tint of the soul) goes from grey in the first hell to pitch-black in the seventh. The environment becomes more hostile. The bodies become more deformed and hideous. The suffering intensifies. And the actions of the beings become more wicked — they want to do good but can only produce evil. Think of it like a downward spiral: the deeper a soul falls, the harder it becomes to think, feel, or act in any positive way.

परस्परोदीरितदुःखाः ॥४॥

The infernal beings cause pain and suffering to one another.

Infernal beings possess a type of clairvoyance from birth that lets them see the cause of their pain in others. When they see each other, their anger erupts. They remember their past lives and fight with intense hatred. Using their power to change form, they create weapons — swords, axes, spears — and attack each other endlessly. They use hands, feet, and teeth to cut, split, and bite. Their bodies get torn apart, but they cannot die before their lifespan ends. The suffering continues without a break.

संक्लिष्टासुरोदीरितदुःखाश्च प्राक् चतुर्थ्याः ॥५॥

In addition, in the first three earths, malevolent Asurakumara celestial beings also cause pain to infernal beings.

As if the self-inflicted suffering among infernal beings were not enough, certain celestial beings called Asurakumaras (a type of demon-god) visit the first three hells to torment them further. These Asuras have name-karma that makes them aggressive and hostile. They make infernal beings drink molten iron, embrace red-hot iron pillars, and climb trees with sharp thorns. They cut them with hatchets, fry them in iron vessels, and grind them in oil-presses. Despite all this, the infernal beings cannot die early — their lifespan must run its full course.

तेष्वेकत्रिसप्तदशद्वाविंशतित्रयस्त्रिंशत्सागरोपमा सत्त्वानां परा स्थितिः ॥६॥

The maximum lifespan of beings in the seven hells is 1, 3, 7, 10, 17, 22, and 33 sagaropama, respectively.

A sagaropama is an almost unimaginably long unit of time — far beyond anything we can relate to in human years. In the first hell, Ratnaprabha, a being can live for up to one sagaropama. In the second, up to three. And so on, doubling and increasing, until the seventh hell where a being can be trapped for up to thirty-three sagaropama. These are maximum lifespans — the actual time varies, but the point is clear: the deeper the hell, the longer the sentence.

जम्बूद्वीपलवणोदादयः शुभनामानो द्वीपसमुद्राः ॥७॥

Jambudvipa, Lavanoda, and so on are the continents and oceans, all bearing auspicious names.

Now the sutra shifts from the underworld to the middle world where we live. Picture concentric rings, like a bullseye. At the center is the continent of Jambudvipa. Surrounding it is the ocean Lavanoda (the salt ocean). Beyond that is another continent, then another ocean, and so on — innumerable rings extending outward to the ocean of Svayambhuramana. The continents are named Jambudvipa, Dhatakikhanda, Pushkaradvipa, and more. The oceans are Lavanoda, Kaloda, Pushkaravara, and more. All have auspicious, meaningful names.

द्विर्द्विविष्कम्भाः पूर्वपूर्वपरिक्षेपिणो वलयाकृतयः ॥८॥

Each continent or ocean is double the width of the one before it. They are circular in shape, each encircling the one inside it.

The Jain universe is like a set of nesting rings. Jambudvipa sits at the center. The ocean around it, Lavanoda, is twice as wide as Jambudvipa. The next continent, Dhatakikhanda, is twice as wide as Lavanoda. And so on, each ring doubling in size. Every ring is perfectly circular, and each one wraps completely around the one before it — like ripples spreading outward from a stone dropped in water, except each ripple is exactly double the previous one.

तन्मध्ये मेरुनाभिर्वृत्तो योजनशतसहस्रविष्कम्भो जम्बूद्वीपः ॥९॥

In the middle of all these continents and oceans is Jambudvipa, round, one hundred thousand yojana in diameter, with Mount Meru at its center.

Jambudvipa is the innermost continent, the one closest to us. It is perfectly round, 100,000 yojana across (a yojana is an ancient unit of distance). Right at its center stands Mount Meru — the cosmic mountain that serves as the axis of the Jain universe. Mount Meru is 140,000 yojana tall and sits at the navel of Jambudvipa the way a belly button sits at the center of the body. The continent gets its name from the Jambu tree, an eternal, uncreated tree in the northern region called Uttarakuru.

भरतहैमवतहरिविदेहरम्यकहैरण्यवतऐरावतवर्षाः क्षेत्राणि ॥१०॥

Jambudvipa has seven regions: Bharata, Haimavata, Harivarsha, Videha, Ramyaka, Hairanyavata, and Airavata.

Jambudvipa is divided into seven horizontal strips, running from south to north. Bharata is the southernmost — this is the region most connected to our world. Moving north you cross Haimavata, then Harivarsha, then Videha at the very center (where Mount Meru stands). Continuing north: Ramyaka, Hairanyavata, and finally Airavata at the far north. These names are eternal and without origin — they have existed since beginningless time.

तद्भाजिनः पूर्वापरायता हिमवन्महाहिमवन्निषधनीलरुक्मिशिखरिणो वर्षधरपर्वताः ॥११॥

Six mountain chains run from east to west, dividing these regions: Himavan, Mahahimavan, Nishadha, Nila, Rukmi, and Shikhari.

These six mountain ranges stretch across Jambudvipa like horizontal walls, creating the seven regions between them. Himavan (the small one) sits between Bharata and Haimavata. Mahahimavan separates Haimavata from Harivarsha. Nishadha lies south of Videha, and Nila lies north of it. Rukmi separates Ramyaka from Hairanyavata, and Shikhari divides Hairanyavata from Airavata. They run from the eastern ocean to the western ocean, touching Lavanoda on both sides.

हेमार्जुनतपनीयवैडूर्यरजतहेममयाः ॥१२॥

These mountain chains are golden, white, purified gold, blue-gem, silvery, and golden in colour, respectively.

Each mountain range has a distinctive colour. Himavan is golden, like Chinese silk. Mahahimavan is white. Nishadha is like heated gold, glowing bright. Nila is blue, like the neck of a peacock. Rukmi is silvery white. And Shikhari is golden again, like Chinese silk. These are not just poetic descriptions — in Jain cosmology, the mountains are literally made of these precious substances and emit these colours.

मणिविचित्रपार्श्वा उपरि मूले च तुल्यविस्ताराः ॥१३॥

These mountains have jewel-studded, variegated sides, and they are of equal width at the foot, in the middle, and at the top.

Unlike ordinary mountains that are wide at the base and narrow at the peak, these cosmic mountain chains have the same width all the way up — like giant rectangular walls rather than triangular peaks. Their sides are studded with precious stones of different colours and lustre, making them shimmer with beauty. The uniform width is a deliberate detail: these are not natural formations shaped by erosion, but eternal structures that have always existed in this perfect form.

पद्ममहापद्मतिगिञ्छकेसरिमहापुण्डरीकपुण्डरीका हृदास्तेषामुपरि ॥१४॥

On top of these mountains are lakes named Padma, Mahapadma, Tigincha, Kesari, Mahapundarika, and Pundarika.

Each of the six mountain ranges has a magnificent lake on its summit. The first mountain, Himavan, has lake Padma on top. Mahahimavan has Mahapadma. Nishadha has Tigincha. Nila has Kesari. Rukmi has Mahapundarika. And Shikhari has Pundarika. These are not ordinary lakes — their bottoms are made of adamant (an indestructible substance), and their banks are variegated with gold and jewels.

प्रथमो योजनसहस्रायामस्तदर्द्धविष्कम्भो हृदः ॥१५॥

The first lake, Padma, is one thousand yojana in length and half of that in breadth.

Lake Padma, sitting on top of Mount Himavan, is 1,000 yojana long (east to west) and 500 yojana wide (north to south). To put this in perspective, one yojana is roughly 8-10 miles, so this lake would be thousands of miles across. The bottom is made of adamant, and the banks are adorned with gold and jewels. Each subsequent lake on the higher mountains is double the size of the one before it.

दशयोजनावगाहः ॥१६॥

The depth of the first lake is ten yojana.

Lake Padma is ten yojana deep. Like its length and breadth, the depth of each subsequent lake doubles. So Mahapadma is twenty yojana deep, Tigincha forty, and so on. These are lakes of cosmic scale — not merely bodies of water, but sacred features of the eternal geography of Jambudvipa.

तन्मध्ये योजनं पुष्करम् ॥१७॥

In the middle of the first lake, there is a lotus of one yojana in size.

At the centre of lake Padma floats an enormous lotus. It measures one yojana across — about four krosha long and one yojana broad. The lotus has a multitude of petals, over a thousand, densely packed together. Its stalk rises half a yojana from the surface of the water. This is not a decoration; it is a sacred dwelling place. The lotuses on the other lakes are each double the size of the one before.

तद्द्विगुणद्विगुणा हृदाः पुष्कराणि च ॥१८॥

The lakes as well as the lotuses on further mountains are each double the size of the previous one.

The doubling principle applies to everything here. Mahapadma (lake on Mahahimavan) is double Padma in length, breadth, and depth. Tigincha is double Mahapadma. The lotuses follow the same rule. So the lotus in Pundarika (the sixth lake) is 32 times larger than the lotus in Padma. This consistent doubling reflects the Jain cosmological principle of symmetric expansion outward from the centre.

तन्निवासिन्यो देव्यः श्रीह्रीधृतिकीर्तिबुद्धिलक्ष्म्यः पल्योपमस्थितयः ससामानिकपरिषत्काः ॥१९॥

In these lotuses live divine nymphs named Shri, Hri, Dhrti, Kirti, Buddhi, and Lakshmi, whose lifetime is one palyopama each. They live with celestial attendants of equal status.

Each of the six great lotuses is home to a goddess. Shri lives in lotus Padma, Hri in Mahapadma, Dhrti in Tigincha, Kirti in Kesari, Buddhi in Mahapundarika, and Lakshmi in Pundarika. These are celestial beings with a lifespan of one palyopama — an incredibly long unit of time. In the centre of each lotus is a snow-white mansion, lovelier than a full autumn moon. Their celestial attendants, called samanika and parishad, reside on the surrounding peripheral lotuses.

गंगासिन्धुरोहिद्रोहितास्याहरिद्धरिकान्तासीतासीतोदानारीनरकान्तासुवर्णकूलारूप्यकूलारक्तारक्तोदाः सरितस्तन्मध्यगाः ॥२०॥

The rivers flowing across these regions are Ganga, Sindhu, Rohita, Rohitasya, Harit, Harikanta, Sita, Sitoda, Nari, Narakanta, Suvarnakula, Rupyakula, Rakta, and Raktoda.

Fourteen major rivers flow through the seven regions of Jambudvipa. They come in pairs — two rivers in each region. Bharata has Ganga and Sindhu. Haimavata has Rohita and Rohitasya. Harivarsha has Harit and Harikanta. Videha has Sita and Sitoda. Ramyaka has Nari and Narakanta. Hairanyavata has Suvarnakula and Rupyakula. And Airavata has Rakta and Raktoda. Each river originates from one of the great lakes on the mountain tops and flows through its region to the ocean.

द्वयोर्द्वयोः पूर्वाः पूर्वगाः ॥२१॥

The first of each pair of rivers flows eastward.

In each region, the rivers come in pairs, and they flow in opposite directions. The first river of each pair — Ganga, Rohita, Harit, Sita, Nari, Suvarnakula, and Rakta — flows eastward and empties into the eastern ocean. These are called the eastern rivers. The rivers rise from the lakes on the mountains and flow through archways in the mountain ranges to reach the regions below.

शेषास्त्वपरगाः ॥२२॥

The rest are the western rivers.

The second river in each pair — Sindhu, Rohitasya, Harikanta, Sitoda, Narakanta, Rupyakula, and Raktoda — flows westward into the western ocean. So every region has one river going east and one going west. For example, in the Bharata region, the Ganga flows east from lake Padma through its eastern archway, while the Sindhu flows west through its western archway. Each pair of rivers divides its region into three parts.

चतुर्दशनदीसहस्रपरिवृता गंगासिन्ध्वादयो नद्यः ॥२३॥

The rivers Ganga, Sindhu, and the others each have 14,000 tributaries.

Each of the major rivers in the Bharata region — Ganga and Sindhu — has 14,000 tributary rivers feeding into it. The rivers in the next region have double that number, and the pattern of doubling continues up to Videha. Beyond Videha, the number starts halving again. So in total, the fourteen major rivers and their hundreds of thousands of tributaries form an elaborate water network flowing through every region of Jambudvipa.

भरतः षड्विंशतिपञ्चयोजनशतविस्तारः षट्चैकोनविंशतिभागा योजनस्य ॥२४॥

The width of the Bharata region, from south to north, is 526 and 6/19 yojana.

Bharata is the southernmost region of Jambudvipa, and its width from south to north is precisely measured at 526 and 6/19 yojana. This is the region most relevant to our human existence — it is one of the few places where karma-creating activity happens. The precise fraction (6/19) shows how detailed Jain cosmological calculations are. This width is one hundred and ninetieth of the total diameter of Jambudvipa (100,000 yojana).

तद्द्विगुणद्विगुणविस्तारा वर्षधरवर्षा विदेहान्ताः ॥२५॥

The mountains and regions are double and double in width, up to Videha.

Starting from Bharata and moving north, each region and its bordering mountain chain doubles in width compared to the previous one. So Himavan mountain is double the width of Bharata. Haimavata region is double Himavan. Mahahimavan is double Haimavata. And so on, all the way up to Videha at the centre. This doubling pattern creates a symmetric expansion where the middle region, Videha, is the widest.

उत्तरा दक्षिणतुल्याः ॥२६॥

Those in the north are equal to those in the south.

Jambudvipa is perfectly symmetrical around Videha at the centre. The northern regions mirror the southern ones exactly. Hairanyavata in the north is the same width as Haimavata in the south. Ramyaka matches Harivarsha. Airavata in the far north is the same size as Bharata in the far south. The mountains follow the same pattern — Shikhari matches Himavan, Rukmi matches Mahahimavan, and Nila matches Nishadha. Everything is balanced.

भरतैरावतयोर्वृद्धिहासौ षट्समयाभ्यामुत्सर्पिणीयवसर्पिणीभ्याम् ॥२७॥

In Bharata and Airavata, there is rise and fall through six periods during the ascending and descending half-cycles of time.

Time in Jain cosmology moves in cycles. Each cycle has two halves: an ascending half (utsarpini) where things gradually get better, and a descending half (avasarpini) where things gradually get worse. Each half has six periods. In the descending half, you go from the best period (sushamasushama, pure happiness) down through mixed periods to the worst (atiduhshama, extreme misery). The ascending half reverses this. This rise and fall of human quality — in intellect, lifespan, height, and happiness — only happens in Bharata and Airavata. One full cycle of ascending and descending takes 20 kotakoti sagaropama.

ताभ्यामपरा भूमयोऽवस्थिताः ॥२८॥

The other regions are stable — they experience no time cycles.

Unlike Bharata and Airavata, the other five regions of Jambudvipa (Haimavata, Harivarsha, Videha, Ramyaka, and Hairanyavata) have no ascending or descending periods. Conditions there remain constant forever. Human beings in those regions always have the same lifespan, height, and quality of life. There is no era of misery, no era of great happiness — just steady, unchanging conditions. This is why Videha is especially significant: even in the worst times of Bharata, Tirthankaras can still appear in Videha.

एकद्वित्रिपल्योपमस्थितयो हैमवतकहारिवर्षकदैवकुरवकाः ॥२९॥

The lifetimes of human beings in Haimavata, Harivarsha, and Devakuru are one, two, and three palyopama, respectively.

In the stable regions, human lifespan is fixed. Beings in Haimavata (and its northern mirror, Hairanyavata) live for one palyopama. In Harivarsha (and Ramyaka), they live for two palyopama. In Devakuru and Uttarakuru (the sub-regions within Videha), they live for three palyopama. These are incredibly long lifetimes by our standards. The humans in these regions also have fixed heights, eat at regular intervals of days, and have bodies of specific colours — blue like a lotus in Haimavata, white like a conch in Harivarsha, and yellow like gold in Devakuru.

तथोत्तराः ॥३०॥

The conditions in the northern regions are the same as in the south.

This short but important sutra confirms the perfect symmetry of Jambudvipa. Hairanyavata in the north mirrors Haimavata in the south — same lifespan, height, body colour, and conditions. Ramyaka mirrors Harivarsha. Uttarakuru mirrors Devakuru. Everything said about the southern regions applies equally to their northern counterparts.

विदेहेषु सङ्ख्येयकालाः ॥३१॥

In the Videha regions, the lifetime of human beings is a numerable number of years.

The five Videha regions are unique. Unlike the other stable regions where lifespan is measured in palyopama (incredibly long units), humans in Videha live for a numerable (countable) number of years. The maximum is one purvakoti years and the minimum is one antarmuhurta. The conditions always remain like the end of the third time period — stable and pleasant. Humans there are 500 bows tall, eat food every day, and the period of susamaduhshama (mild mixed quality) prevails forever. This is the region where Tirthankaras always exist.

भरतस्य विष्कम्भो जम्बूद्वीपस्य नवतिशतभागः ॥३२॥

The width of the Bharata region is one hundred and ninetieth (1/190) of the diameter of Jambudvipa.

This sutra restates Bharata's width in a different way. Since Jambudvipa is 100,000 yojana in diameter, one-190th of that gives 526 and 6/19 yojana — exactly matching the measurement given earlier. Jambudvipa itself is encircled by a mound, which is surrounded by the ocean Lavanasamudra, 200,000 yojana wide. Beyond that lies the continent Dhatakikhanda, 400,000 yojana wide. The rings keep expanding outward.

द्विर्धातकीखण्डे ॥३३॥

In Dhatakikhanda, the regions, mountains, and everything else are double those of Jambudvipa.

The second continent, Dhatakikhanda, is like an expanded copy of Jambudvipa. It has two Bharatas, two Himavans, two sets of everything — all double the dimensions. Two mountain ranges called Ishvakara run from south to north, dividing Dhatakikhanda into eastern and western halves. Each half has its own Mount Meru (called Mandara). The continent gets its name from the Dhataki tree, just as Jambudvipa gets its name from the Jambu tree. The ocean encircling it is Kaloda, and beyond that lies Pushkaradvipa.

पुष्कराद्धे च ॥३४॥

In the inner half of Pushkaradvipa, the number of regions and mountains is the same as in Dhatakikhanda.

Pushkaradvipa is the third continent. It is divided into two halves by the mountain range Manushottara, which runs in a circle like a bangle. The inner half (closer to Jambudvipa) has the same layout as Dhatakikhanda — the same regions, mountains, lakes, rivers, and features, all at double the dimensions of Dhatakikhanda. The outer half, however, has no such divisions. The Pushkara tree, an eternal tree like Jambu and Dhataki, gives this continent its name.

प्राङ्मानुषोत्तरान्मनुष्याः ॥३५॥

Human beings are found only up to the Manushottara mountain range.

This is a critical boundary. The Manushottara mountain range on Pushkaradvipa is the absolute limit of human habitation. Beyond it, no humans exist — not even those with supernatural powers (vidyadhara) or special spiritual attainment (riddhi) can cross it, with only three rare exceptions. This means humans exist only in the two-and-a-half innermost continents: all of Jambudvipa, all of Dhatakikhanda, and the inner half of Pushkaradvipa. The rest of the infinite continents and oceans beyond are devoid of human life.

आर्या म्लेच्छाश्च ॥३६॥

Human beings are of two kinds: the civilized (arya) and the unevolved (mleccha).

Arya refers to those who possess virtues or follow a virtuous path. They are further divided into two groups: those with supernatural attainments (riddhi), who have powers like extraordinary intellect, the ability to change form, great austerity, and healing abilities; and those without such attainments, who are classified by five factors — region, family, occupation, conduct, and faith. The unevolved (mleccha) are also of two types: those born on mid-isles in the oceans (antardvipaja mleccha) and those born in regions of labour on the continents (karmabhumija mleccha). The mid-isle mleccha have unusual physical features and live for one palyopama.

भरतैरावतविदेहाः कर्मभूमयोऽन्यत्र देवकुरूत्तरकुरुभ्यः ॥३७॥

Bharata, Airavata, and Videha — excluding Devakuru and Uttarakuru — are the regions of labour (karmabhumi).

A karmabhumi is a region where beings actively create karma through their actions — both good and bad. These are the only places where you can perform the intense effort needed for spiritual liberation. Bharata, Airavata, and Videha (five each across the two-and-a-half continents) are karmabhumis, but Devakuru and Uttarakuru within Videha are excluded because they are bhogabhumis (regions of enjoyment), where life is so comfortable that there is no drive to perform spiritual labour. Only in karmabhumis can beings acquire the karma needed for the highest celestial states, and only there can the six kinds of occupations like agriculture exist.

नृस्थिती परावरे त्रिपल्योपमान्तर्मुहूर्ते ॥३८॥

The maximum lifetime of human beings is three palyopama, and the minimum is one antarmuhurta.

A palyopama is an astronomically long unit of time, measured by a thought experiment: fill a pit one yojana long, wide, and deep with the finest wool fibres, then remove one fibre every hundred years — the time to empty the pit is one palyopama. Three palyopama is the maximum any human can live, found in regions like Devakuru. The minimum, one antarmuhurta (less than 48 minutes), is the shortest possible human life — a being who is born and dies almost immediately. Between these two extremes lie countless gradations of human lifespan.

तिर्यग्योनिजानां च ॥३९॥

The lifetimes of subhuman beings (tiryancha) are the same — maximum three palyopama and minimum one antarmuhurta.

Subhuman beings — animals, plants, insects, and all non-human living things — share the same lifespan range as humans. The longest-lived subhuman can live up to three palyopama, and the shortest-lived dies within one antarmuhurta. This might seem surprising, but remember that in Jain cosmology, "subhuman" includes everything from one-sensed earth-bodies and water-bodies to five-sensed animals. Some of these beings, especially in the stable regions, can live for incredibly long periods.